Weather Outlook — Paul Knight, Pennsylvania State Climatologist
Like an inverted V, the area from Centre County southward to the Maryland border, or the south—central section of the state, has received more than 125% of normal April rainfall. The remainder of the state has seen average to below normal rainfall with sections of the southern Pocono mountains and the Allegheny plateau being the driest with less than 50% of April’s usual 3–4 inches of rain. Such piecemeal rainfall patterns so early in the growing season portend a summer with sharp boundaries between dry and wet areas within Pennsylvania.
The current chilly weather, with scattered frost in the northern and central valleys on Wednesday morning, will yield to warm and more humid weather by Friday. During the transition on Thursday, much of the state will have several hours of a chilly rain. The warmth will persist into the first half of the weekend until a slow—moving cold front crosses the area later Saturday and Sunday with more showers and some embedded thunderstorms. A few days of seasonably cool weather early next week will give way to warmer conditions by mid—week (May 7–8). The warmer weather should only last for a few days as a progressive pattern brings back chilly air by the middle of the month.
Check out the predicted Growing Degree Days (base 55) for Pennsylvania for the next two weeks at: http://climate.met.psu.edu/data/regional_gdd.php
Planning Ahead for using N Tests for Corn — Douglas Beegle PSU Soil Specialist
The ideal time for testing corn fields for N management is just before sidedressing time. The pre—sidedress soil nitrate test (PSNT) and the chlorophyll meter N test are both useful, especially when manure is used, to significantly improve sidedress N recommendations. To get the most benefit from these tests minimal N should be applied at planting time. If manure is applied, only starter N fertilizer is needed early with the balance of the N applied as a sidedressing based on the test results. For corn without manure at least 1/3 of the N fertilizer should be applied near to planting time with the balance applied as a sidedressing based on the test results. The PSNT can be used with significant fertilizer N applied at planting time. See Agronomy Facts #17 “Pre—sidedress Soil Nitrate Test for Corn” [http://cropsoil.psu.edu/extension/facts/agfact17.pdf] for details on this test. However, the chlorophyll meter test cannot be used if more than 15 lbs of fertilizer N is applied early. This is critical with the chlorophyll meter test and is the most common cause of errors in test results.
There are two methods for using the chlorophyll meter. The first is based on establishing a “high N reference” area early in the season in fields to be tested and then at sidedressing time comparing the chlorophyll meter readings in this reference area to the rest of the field. This is the most reliable procedure because it accounts for other factors that affect the greenness of the plants. A high N reference area can be established by selecting a representative area in a field 4 to 6 rows wide and 20 to 40 ft long and hand applying a “more than adequate” amount of N in this area. Below are some examples for the amount of urea to apply in a high N reference plot. The exact amount is not critical as long as it is more than adequate.
Reference Plot Size
¹Urea (lb/plot)
¹The calculation is as follows: ((plot L × plot W) ÷ 43560) × (N rate ÷ N Fert. Analysis as decimal). I used 250 lb N/A in the table.
4 rows (10 ft) × 20 ft long
2.5
6 rows (15 ft) × 20 ft long
3.75
4 rows (10 ft) × 40 ft long
5.0
6 rows (15 ft) × 40 ft long
7.5
You could also apply a strip of N through the field with a fertilizer applicator as a high N reference. Be sure to clearly mark the reference area so that you can find it at sidedressing time. At growth stage 6 take chlorophyll meter readings from the reference plot and the rest of the field and use the guidance in Agronomy Facts #53 “The Early Season Chlorophyll Meter Test for Corn” [http://cropsoil.psu.edu/extension/facts/agfact53.pdf] for how to take the readings and to interpret the results and make a recommendation.
If you do not establish a high N reference plot early in the growing season you can still use the chlorophyll meter on fields with manure since previous crop and/or first year after forage legume (alfalfa, alfalfa/grass, clover) only. On these fields, take chlorophyll meter readings as close to the six-leaf stage as possible. See Agronomy Facts #53 above for details on taking the actual readings. Use Table 1 below to determine whether a field needs sidedress N or requires a second meter reading ~4 to 7 days later.
Table 1. High Organic @ LS 6
Average meter reading
< 42.0
42.0 to 45.9
= or > 46.0
N Recommendation
Sidedress 80 lb N/ac
Test again or Sidedress 50 lb N/ac
No sidedress N needed
On those fields that require a second meter reading, do meter readings ~4 to 7 days later. Plants should now be at the seven to eight-leaf stage. Depending on weather conditions, fields usually advance one leaf stage in about three to six days. Use the same procedures as for the first reading. Use Table 2 to predict whether a field needs to be sidedressed.
Alfalfa weevil are active in areas of the Pennsylvania and surrounding states. Their activity can easily be identified from the feeding (chunks missing) on alfalfa leaflets. If you see feeding damage and want to determine if they are approaching the “economic threshold”, collect an alfalfa stem from 30 spots in the field (total 30 stems) and place them upside down in a plastic bucket. Beat the stems, in groups of 10, against the bucket 15 times to dislodge the weevil larvae from the stems. Count the larvae and refer to economic threshold tables below.
How to use the table below:
Use plant height category that fits the field.
Estimate the value of the crop in dollars per ton of hay equivalent and the cost to spray an acre.
From monitoring the field, find the number of alfalfa weevil larvae from a sample of 30 stems.
The number in each small box indicates the number of larvae per 30-stem sample that is required for a spray application to be profitable under these conditions.
Example: Plants in the field are 20 inches high (use Category II), hay is valued at $80 per ton, cost to spray is $8 per acre, and you collected 40 larvae from the sample of 30 stems. The number in the box common to $80 per ton and $8 is 75. This means that under these conditions, 75 larvae are needed before a spray would be profitable. Since you collected only 40 larvae, a spray at this time will not be profitable.
Table 3. Economic Injury threshold for alfalfa weevil; number of larvae from 30-stem sample.
Category I plant height 12 to 18 inches
Category II plant height 18 to 24 inches
Category III plant height 24 to 30 inches
V a l u e of hay per ton
$60
91
114
137
160
183
225
99
124
149
174
199
240
104
130
156
182
209
260
$80
68
85
102
119
136
171
75
94
113
131
150
186
78
97
117
137
157
195
$100
54
68
81
95
108
137
62
75
90
105
120
149
63
78
94
110
126
156
$120
45
57
68
79
91
114
50
62
75
87
100
124
52
65
78
91
105
130
$140
39
49
59
68
77
99
43
54
64
75
86
107
45
56
67
78
90
112
$160
34
43
51
60
68
86
37
47
56
65
75
93
39
49
58
68
79
98
$8
10
12
14
16
20
$8
10
12
14
16
20
$8
10
12
14
16
20
Cost of insecticide application per acre
The Importance of Scouting — John Tooker, PSU Entomology Specialist
As alfalfa weevil and other insect pest species are becoming increasingly active in Pennsylvania, it is a good time to revisit the importance of scouting. Scouting and associated insect sampling are vital components of integrated pest management (IPM) programs and without them it is difficult to make informed decisions. Economic thresholds (or “action” thresholds) are largely based on information that should be collected by scouting and sampling. By not scouting, one runs the risk of overlooking developing pest populations or unnecessarily applying control treatments, both of which can damage the bottom line. Scouting allows for informed decisions and optimal use of resources.
Frequent scouting can detect pest populations that are earlier or later than normal and also can identify unusual problems. Scouting based on degree—day accumulations allows for more precise targeting of perennial pests. Because some insects are small or difficult to detect, it may be necessary to scout multiple fields multiple times to accurately assess insect populations. Also, more intensive scouting may be necessary in fields that are prone to pest problems. When scouting, it is important to explore fields systematically rather than just taking a few steps in from the edge. Sampling protocols have been established for most pest insect species, so it is wise to know these protocols because economic thresholds are usually tied to specific sampling techniques. Lastly, an IPM program should take insects, weeds, and diseases into account, so it makes sense to integrate insect scouting with weed and disease scouting.
Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus — Justin Dillon PSU Research Assistant
Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV) has been found in several wheat fields in northern Cambria County. Although the disease can be symptomless in wheat, this year the characteristic yellowed foliage is very apparent. This disease can be confused with nutritional deficiencies, with the major difference being that with BYDV the more severe symptoms are on the older leaves and symptoms begin at the tip of the newer leaves. The normal symptoms of the disease include stunted foliage growth, reduction in root growth, chlorosis, and striping from leaf tip towards the base. In wheat and oats, the plants may exhibit a reddening of older leaves.
This virus requires an insect vector to spread the disease. BYDV is vectored by three aphids: oat aphid (Rhapalsiphum padi), corn aphid (R. maidis), and the grain aphid (Sitobion avenae). Due to the warm fall in 2007, the aphids were active much later into the season than usual, allowing for large infections in the field and almost uniform appearance across the field.
Many of the barley varieties have been bred with resistance to BYDV, but the disease can affect all cereals and grasses. Sources of the disease include orchardgrass, wild oat, ryegrass, sorghum, and other common grasses. Often these infected plants are symptomless. The main concern with an infection in wheat is that the aphids will be able to spread the disease to oats, which can be severely affected.
The expected yield reduction in infected plants is typically 5–20% in wheat, but data has indicated losses up to 79% in early infected wheat plants. There is no way to control the disease once established. The disease is more severe in plants that are exposed to drought stress, imbalanced fertility, or low pH. The keys to reduce BYDV is to plant resistant varieties after the Hessian fly free date, maintain pH and balanced fertility, and control volunteer wheat, barley, and oats that may act as a source for new infections.
Wheat Scab Assessment Tool Available — Del Voight PSU Extension Lebanon Co.
Once the flag leaf emerges it’s the time to begin assessing the presence of wheat diseases. $3.50/bu wheat versus $10.00/bu wheat certainly demands a closer look at wheat disease management. Here are some ideas to think about. As the flag leaf emerges weather, varietal resistance, yield potential and nitrogen management practices will determine the economic injury of diseases to your crop. The recent dry weather has halted most disease movement and growth. Recent rains however may increase the infection and subsequent growth of powdery mildew and septoria leaf blotch diseases in wheat. We most often think of the powdery mildew to persist in warm but humid conditions that produce an inter- canopy infection generally while the septoria persists in warm but wet rainy conditions that splash the spores up from the soil to the plant leaves.
Head Scab caused by Fusarium graminearum is one disease that cannot be scouted for easily. However new technologies allow for accurate assessment of the risk of head scab in your field. To utilize this technology log onto the internet and navigate to http://www.wheatscab.psu.edu/ Follow the online options and determine the need to treat. Again there are few varieties available that are resistant to head scab so treatments may be an option.
What disease are you seeing? Follow this link to determine which disease you have predominately in the field. This will provide direction to the fungicide you choose as well as assess how the disease will respond to changing weather conditions. http://ohioline.osu.edu/b827/0004.html
What is the yield potential? Consider disease treatments when high yield conditions of 70 plus bushel wheat is possible and has been achieved in the past. A stand that was planted early, at a high population and is dense will create a more disease prone environment.
How much N and when was it applied? Applications of less than 60lbs of N do not normally increase the disease pressure as much as the worst case scenario of 120 lbs of N applied all in the spring at GS 4–5. Split applications will decrease the severity of disease infection as well.
Check the lower leaves and it relationship to the flag leaf. Most diseases can be assessed visually by observations and determining if the disease has come to within the first two leaves of the flag leaf. Presence near the flag leaf may require treatment depending on the infection percent.
Check your variety label. Many varieties are resistance to many diseases. The level of resistance will determine the impact of a fungicide application. Lost your tag. To check your variety follow this link to the Ohio State Wheat Variety evaluation test for disease resistance http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/ohiofieldcropdisease/wheat/wheat%20reactions%2007.pdf
Weather impacts the disease and if dry warm weather is forecasted factor that into your decision.
I use the Kansas Decision Guide for Multiple Leaf Diseases that is available on the internet at http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/PLANT2/MF1026.PDF. It has been tested in different parts of the U.S and in other parts of the world and received great reviews from the journals. Print and fill in the risk factors based on in field view and determine the need to treat.
Finally, if you do decide to treat use the proper fungicide and rate. Below I have included a table that I created from the Kansas State and Kentucky State Pathology Departments. I have also included the ball park cost per acre for each.
EFFICACY OF FUNGICIDES FOR WHEAT DISEASE CONTROL AND THEIR RELATIVE COST PER ACRE
Product
Rate/A
Powdery mildew
Stagnospora leaf/glume blotch
Septoria leaf blotch
Tan spot
Leaf rust
Head scab
Cost per acre
*The greater the number of + signs, the greater the relative efficacy.
**(+) indicates greater efficacy at higher application rates.
Source: Kansas State, Kentucky State
Tilt 3.6 EC
4 fl. oz
+++*
+++
+++
+++
+++
+
7.78
PropiMax 3.6 EC
4 fl. oz
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+
9.21
Quidris 2.08 SC
6.2 (to 10.8) fl. oz
+(+)**
+++
+++
+++ +
++++
12.59-21.94
Quilt 200 SC
14 fl. oz
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
13.125
Stratego 250 EC
10 fl. oz
++
+++
+++
+++
++
12.5
Headline 2.09 EC
6.0 (to 9.0) fl. oz
++
+++
+++
+++ +
++++
11.72-17.57
Proline 480
4.3 to 5.7 fl oz. per acre
+++
+++
+++
++
++
+++ 75% head emergence
9.9-13.13
Late Spring Small Grain Herbicides and Nitrogen Fertilizer Carriers — Dwight Lingenfelter, PSU Weed Science
Herbicide selection for broadleaf weeds in winter wheat past Feeke’s Stage 6:
Once wheat has passed Feeke’s Stage 6, the risk of herbicide injury from 2,4-D, MCPA, Banvel/Clarity, or Curtail increases and application of these herbicides is not recommended. In this situation, the remaining herbicide options for broadleaf weed control are Harmony Extra, Harmony GT, TNT Broadleaf, Unity, Buctril, Stinger and Starane. Harmony Extra, Harmony GT, TNT Broadleaf, and Unity can be applied to wheat until the flag leaf is visible (before Feeke’s Stage 8). Buctril, Huskie, Stinger and Starane can be applied to wheat up to boot stage (before Feeke’s Stage 9). See Figure 2.5–1 in the Penn State Agronomy Guide for more details about small grain growth stages and herbicides.
Each spring there are questions about the risks associated with 2,4-D or MCPA application to wheat past Feeke’s Stage 6. Wheat tolerance of 2,4-D is highest between Feeke’s stages 3 and 6 and is lowest in Feeke’s Stages 9 and 10. Between stages 6 and 9, sensitivity to 2,4-D gradually increases as wheat growth stage advances. Thus, the risk of injury increases as wheat growth stage advances between stages 6 and 9. Severe injury is highly probable when 2,4–D is applied at Feeke’s stages 9 and 10.
It is recommended that application of 2,4–D to wheat be made after wheat has reached Feeke’s stage 3 but prior to Feeke’s stage 6. If growers choose to apply 2,4–D at later stages, they need to understand the associated risk. This risk can be minimized by applying the amine form of 2,4–D or reducing the rate of a 2,4–D ester. A much better alternative on wheat past Feeke’s stage 6 is to use another broadleaf herbicide with a wider application window that is effective on the weeds present in the field.
Herbicide carrier selection:
Liquid urea-ammonium nitrate fertilizer (UAN) is a common carrier for herbicides in wheat. The most common herbicide to be used in this manner is 2,4-D ester (2,4-D amine is difficult to mix in UAN). Application of herbicide in liquid nitrogen can cause leaf burn from the nitrogen, especially under hot, humid conditions. This risk increases with later wheat growth stages because more leaf area is exposed to the treatment and recovery time is shorter. In addition, the use of surfactant (required with herbicides such as Harmony Extra) greatly increases leaf burn potential. Research at Michigan State Univ. has demonstrated that excessive leaf burn from high nitrogen rates combined with surfactant can reduce wheat yield. To minimize this risk:
Do not apply more than 20 lbs of nitrogen per acre in the form of UAN when using a surfactant with herbicide.
Do not apply more than 40 lbs of nitrogen per acre in the form of UAN when no surfactant is used.
Avoid high-temperature, high-humidity days. Late afternoon applications carry less risk of leaf burn.
(Article adapted from Jim Kells, David Hillger and Kathrin Schirmacher at Michigan State Univ., Crop & Soil Sciences)
Things to Consider When Using Glyphosate — Dwight Lingenfelter and William Curran, PSU Weed Science
(This article was adapted from an article written by Bob Hartzler, Iowa State University)
Spray volume: Lower volumes (<15 gallons per acre) are generally better for weed control with glyphosate than higher spray volumes (>20 gpa). In higher spray volumes there is increased potential for hard water antagonism and the dilution effect of the herbicide and surfactants. Be careful with low spray volumes and bigger weeds like Pokeweed where coverage is also very important.
AMS (ammonium sulfate): All glyphosate brands recommend AMS if using hard water as a carrier to reduce the antagonistic effects of the hard water salts. Always add 8.5 to 17 lb AMS (per 100 gallons) to the tank before glyphosate. There is generally no difference in effectiveness between dry and liquid AMS, but make sure to use only spray-grade quality. Remember: Always add AMS to spray tank BEFORE glyphosate!!!
Keep in mind that not all water conditioners are alike or effective and AMS is the standard. Proprietary water conditioning products typically contain a number of ingredients, including AMS, surfactants, anti-foaming agents, etc. and although they cost more than straight AMS, they can provide some convenience and ease of handling, assuming they work. University research has shown that not all water conditioners are as effective as AMS at protecting glyphosate performance when hard water is used as the carrier. Differences in performance among conditioners probably are related to how much AMS is found in the product. Spray additives are not regulated, thus manufacturers are not required to provide specific information regarding quantities of AMS or other active ingredients found in the product. Because of this, it is difficult to know exactly how much AMS the water conditioner provides. Before selecting an AMS substitute, be sure the product is a high quality formulation, that a reputable company/firm is backing the product, and that there is documented evidence substantiated the performance claims.
Other adjuvants: Only add other adjuvants to the spray solution if it is recommended on the label. Certain brands of glyphosate require additional surfactants to be added for improved performance, others such as Roundup WeatherMax only recommend the addition of AMS, drift retardants, or colorants/dyes. The use of acidifying agents is not necessary for glyphosate.
Water sources: Glyphosate (and paraquat — Gramoxone) has a high affinity for soil particles. Dirty water from streams or ponds can reduce glyphosate effectiveness. If using water from these sources (or tank—mixing with clay—based herbicides such as atrazine), increase the rate of glyphosate to overcome the antagonism.
Environmental conditions: Any condition (e.g., drought, heat, cold, rainfall, time of day, etc.) that reduces the growth rate of the weeds will likely reduce the activity of glyphosate (and other herbicides). For example, during cold weather, glyphosate will take much longer to kill the plant than during warm, moist conditions.
2,4-D in the Burndown Program — Bill Curran, PSU Weed Specialist
Including 2,4-D in the burndown program in corn is common and is becoming more common in soybean. Including 2,4-D in the burndown offers several advantages over nonselective herbicides (glyphosate or Gramoxone) alone including better control of winter annuals such as horseweed/marestail, mustard species, and wild carrot and increased activity on perennials like dandelion and Canada thistle. In regions with glyphosate resistant horseweed, this should be a standard practice in no-till soybeans to help control the resistant biotype and also reduce the selection for additional glyphosate resistant weeds. Here is a quick review of using 2,4-D in no-till corn or soybeans.
2,4-D ester (LVE) is the preferred formulation for burndown application. Ester formulations are less water soluble and therefore less likely to move into the germination zone. Ester formulations also have better activity under cooler conditions. For corn, most labels recommend application 7 to 14 days before planting or 3 to 5 days after planting, but before corn emergence. One pint/acre is the standard application rate. Applying after planting gives the germinating seed a head start as it emerges through the herbicide treated zone. Significant rainfall, cool temperatures, shallow planted corn, coarse-textured soils, exposed seed, and stress from other herbicides in the tank-mix can increase the potential for 2,4-D injury during corn germination and emergence.
For soybeans, apply 2,4-D ester at ½ to 1 pint/acre at least 7 days before soybean planting. Higher rates require a 15 to 30 day delay in planting depending on the product. Factors that increase the potential for injury are the same as was mentioned for corn. If you less than 7 days ahead of planting and are not using 2,4-D preplant in soybean, consider one of the chlorimuron-based products (Canopy, Valor XLT, Envive) or another soil residual product (Sonic, Authority First, etc.) to help broaden the spectrum.
Cereal Rye Management — Bill Curran, PSU Weed Specialist
Although much of the cereal rye forage or cover crop has been managed by now, there are still some fields that require attention for various reasons. In conventionally managed no-till corn or soybeans, glyphosate is the preferred product of choice for burning down cereal rye. In general, rye is quite susceptible to control with glyphosate, although I have had some recent reports of failure. Factors to consider in order to achieve effective control include:
Herbicide rate — most glyphosate labels recommend increasing the rate of product as the cereal rye matures. With a standard 3 lb acid/gal product where 32 fl oz is a standard rate, recommended rates range from 16 fl oz for rye that is less than 11 inches tall to 32 fl oz for rye that is greater than 18 inches tall. On a side note, annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) is sometimes confused with cereal rye and is more difficult to control than cereal rye. Higher glyphosate rates and application at shorter ryegrass maximum heights are necessary for effective ryegrass control.
Include appropriate adjuvants in the spray tank — include 1 to 2 qt/100 gal nonionic surfactant (unless fully loaded formulation) plus 8.5 to 17 lb/100 gal AMS or equivalent. The AMS helps alleviate hard water problems and also can reduce antagonism if tank—mixing with other herbicides such as 2,4–D. Be sure to add the AMS first to the spray tank and agitate before adding the glyphosate.
Use a clean water source that does not contain soil or other sediment that can reduce glyphosate activity.
Use flat fan nozzle tips that produce a uniform spray pattern and thorough coverage.
Spray in sufficient carrier to achieve good coverage (usually between 10 and 30 GPA).
Make sure the sprayer is accurately calibrated (output, pressure, pattern, speed, etc.) to deliver the appropriate rate uniformly.
Air temperature before, during, and after application can influence control. Cold nights (<40 F) will reduce activity, particularly for glyphosate, and especially when followed by cool (<55 F) cloudy days.
The more time between application and rainfall the better, especially with difficult to control perennials. Although most glyphosate labels state a 1 to 6 hours rain—free period following application, this will depend on the target weed as well as environmental conditions at application. Small seedling annuals require less time, while tough—to—control perennials may require the maximum time and cool temperatures and cloudy days slow herbicide uptake reducing activity (and in theory could extend the necessary rain—free period?). Have I confused you yet? See the accompanying article that further discusses glyphosate activity.
For those individuals interested in using a roller/crimper to either control the rye or other small grain cover crop or to lay it flat on the ground to aid in weed control, here are a few tips to success.
If you are NOT relying on the roller alone to control the cover crop, but are using glyphosate, apply the herbicide 1 to 2 days ahead of rolling. Spraying after rolling can be less effective due to incomplete contact between the herbicide and cover crop, plant stress reducing herbicide uptake due to wheel traffic and from the roller/crimper, etc.
If you are NOT using glyphosate or other herbicides to aid in control, wait until the cereal grain is flowering (anthesis) before rolling. This is defined as when you see the anthers (male pollen sacs) exposed along the head or spike (see accompanying photo). If you are familiar with the stages of cereal grain development, this is between Zadoks 60 to 65, or Feekes 10.51. If you roll the small grain cover prior to this time, it may recover and continue to mature. Finally, whether you spray, roll, or spray and roll, waiting at least 7 to 10 days after termination of the cover crop to plant your cash crop can help avoid insect pest problems and seed placement issues associated with planting into heavy green plant residues.
NEW** No—Till Video — Check it out when you have a moment.
Contributors: Extension Educators: Dave Messersmith, Mena Hautau, Del Voight, John Rowehl, Jeff Graybill, Andrew Frankenfield, Grant Troup, Kevin Fry, Mark Madden.
Dept. Crop & Soil Science: Marvin Hall, Bill Curran, Doug Beegle, John Tooker, Ron Hoover, Justin Dillon
Editor:Tom Murphy, Penn State Extension Lycoming Co.
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